Resource Renewal Institute

Green Plans in Action: European Union: History (Long Form)

Many historical transformations and recent integration processes led up to the success and realization of the European Union (EU). The Roman Empire constituted the first great effort to integrate an important section of the European continent and lands surrounding the Mediterranean Sea. The Middle Ages brought the idea of unification under the common banner of Christendom, along with the images of eurocentrism and superiority of the European civilization. The Renaissance and Enlightenment Periods brought concepts of tolerance, freedom, respect of human rights, and democracy that constitute the foundation of the European construction. Historical personalities such as Charlemagne, Napoleon, and Metternich pursued the notion of integration in quite different ways. Intellectuals and philosophers from Rousseau to Marx, and from Kant to Leibniz, were remarkable thinkers who proposed the idea of a European Community as a desirable long-term political objective.

In 1923, after World War I, Austrian Count Kalergi founded the Pan-European Movement, believing Europe to be only nations and states caught in a chaos of international and future conflicts that could be solved by a union of Europe's nations. In 1929, French Prime Minister Aristide Briand gave a speech before the League of Nations projecting his idea of a federation of European nations based on solidarity and on the pursuit of economic prosperity and political and social cooperation. However, it was too late; economic depression swept away ideas of solidarity and cooperation. Forward thinkers like French politician Edouard Herriot, who published The United States of Europe in 1931, had become a minority. Hitler's rise in 1933 brought an end to European harmony and the rebirth of nationalism in its worst form.

After World War II (1939-1945), Europe became aware of the absurdity of nationalist rivalry, and the definitive end of traditional European world dominance. Europeans recognized the necessity of a new orientation toward European integration to create a more free, fair, and prosperous continent within a framework of peace. A speech by former British Prime Minister Winston Churchill in 1946 is considered by many people as the first step toward European integration in the postwar period, "...We must build a kind of United States of Europe."

In 1948, the Organisation for European Economic Cooperation (OEEC) was established to organize delivery of economic support from the US Marshall Plan. The OEEC was one of the first institutions that involved a great part of Western European countries, it helped liberalize trade among member States, introduced ideas of monetary agreements, and enhanced economic cooperation. The Council of Europe was set up in 1949 to incite political cooperation among European countries. It includes 46 nations and remains the oldest political organization with a main function of reinforcing the democratic system and human rights in member States.

In 1949, Jean Monnet, an influential internationalist and financier, realized that friction between Germany and France for control of the Ruhr, an important coal and steel region, was rising to dangerous levels. In 1950, with the agreement of Chancellor Adenauer of West Germany, the French Minister of Foreign Affairs Robert Schuman made a declaration prepared by Monnet. Schuman proposed integration of the French and German coal and steel industries under joint control, a so-called High Authority, and open to the other countries of Europe. The Schuman Declaration of 1950 marked the first step in the foundation process of the European Community. The Treaty of Paris was signed in April of 1951, establishing the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC). This first European Community was made up of "The Six" - France, Germany, Italy, Belgium, The Netherlands, and Luxemburg.

It was evident that economic integration was the only practical way toward a political union that should be achieved over time. In 1955 foreign ministers of The Six met, and agreements reached provided further steps in the new European framework. In 1957 The Six signed the Treaties of Rome, establishing the European Economic Community (EEC) and the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom) for development of a strong nuclear industry. These Treaties came into force in 1958. The Treaty of Rome also established some transport policies, the prohibition of monopolies, and granted commercial privileges to colonial territories of member States.

The EEC became known as the "Common Market," and dismantled tariff barriers 10 years hence for member States while establishing a common tariff on products from other countries. The other essential agreement was adoption of a Common Agricultural Policy (CAP). CAP enacted a free market of agricultural products inside the EEC with protectionist policies toward European farmers. The EEC was based on a series of institutions: the European Commission, the European Assembly, later known as European Parliament, the Court of Justice, and the Economic and Social Committee, whose competences were enlarged and modified in the diverse agreements and treaties that succeeded the Treaty of Rome. Progressive economic integration was paving the way for the long-term objective, the political union.

The United Kingdom chose not to join the EEC, and while the EEC had spectacular economic growth rates in the sixties clearly superior to those in America, Great Britain continued its downward trend in relation to the Continent. In both 1961 and 1967 Great Britain requested negotiations on accession to the EEC and each time French leader Charles De Gaulle vetoed it. In 1966 De Gaulle's nationalism brought about the empty chair crisis in the Council that kept the Community paralyzed for seven months. De Gaulle resigned in 1969, and in 1972 the United Kingdom joined the EEC, along with Denmark and Ireland. The Europe of The Nine was born.

Key advancements in the 1970's included the European Council being instituted as a periodical meeting for Heads of State or Government (1975). This became the institution where major long-term decisions were made. In 1979 The European Monetary System (EMS) came into force and the European Currency Unit (ECU), direct predecessor of the Euro, was born. Member countries' currencies were tied in a narrow 2.5% band of fluctuation and national governments committed to coordinate their monetary policies. It was the first significant step toward monetary union.

After the end of military dictatorships, Greece (1981), and Spain and Portugal (1986), became new members of the EEC. The Community was enlarged toward the Mediterranean Europe, and The Europe of The Twelve was born. The EEC also began to play a more prominent role by signing a series of conventions on aid and trade with countries in Africa, the Caribbean, and the Pacific.

The Single European Act came into force in 1987, and was the first modification of the foundational treaties of the European Communities - the Treaty of Paris (1951) and the Treaties of Rome (1957). The Single Act agreed to the progressive establishment of a common market over a period that would conclude on December 31, 1992. This would mean an area without obstacles to free movement of goods, people, services and capitals. This ambitious goal, summed up in 282 detailed measures, was broadly reached in the foreseen term, and the Common Market became a reality. The Single Act also included diverse initiatives to promote integration in the spheres of social rights for health and safety, research and technology, and environmental protection.

As president of the Commission, French socialist Jacques Delors promoted economic and monetary union as a key element in the integration process, and proposed passage of a Social Charter guaranteeing social minimum standards to every European worker. In 1988 British Prime Minister Thatcher opposed Delors' policy and European integration. Delors' reply to Thatcher was to speed up the integration process, "History is accelerating and we should make it with her..." Within one year paramount events of the 20th century occurred - the Berlin Wall fell in 1989, and the collapse of communism in Central and Eastern Europe peaked in 1991 with the Soviet Union break-up. That same year the disintegration of Yugoslavia brought the war again to the continent.

A direct consequence of the communist collapse in the EEC was the reunification of Germany in 1990. Henceforth, the German Federal Republic, with 80 million inhabitants and 30% of the GNP of the EEC, became a State that incontestably overpowered France and Great Britain in economic might. French president Mitterand and German chancellor Kohl decided to encourage the European integration process as a means to anchor Germany in Europe. A decisive impulse toward greater European integration was the only way Germany could project its political weight in Europe and the world without raising fear and hostility. The power void created by collapse of communism and break-up of the USSR brought a change in the political position of the EEC. It became an organization that guaranteed stability amid an unstable Europe. New democracies emerging from Communism's collapse rushed to apply for membership in the Community. In addition, the Stock Exchange crash in 1987 and problems of the European Monetary System that arose in 1992 impelled European political leaders to take a decisive step toward a European union.

After almost three years of debate, the European Council approved the Treaty on the European Union (TEU), popularly known as Treaty of Maastricht, and it was signed on February 7, 1992. The TEU represents a turning point in the European integration process. By modifying the previous treaties - Paris, Rome and Single European Act - the initial economic objective of the Community, building a common market, was outstripped and for the first time a distinctive vocation of political union was claimed. The TEU changed the official name of the EEC to the European Union. The ratification of the Treaty of Maastricht was brimmed with difficulties in 1992 from the European economic crises, monetary challenges, and the inability to implement a foreign and security policy in the Yugoslavian war. However, the ratifications of the Treaty gradually took place and the Treaty of Maastricht entered into force on November 1, 1993.

The TEU has a structure described as a Greek temple sustained by three pillars. The first pillar is the central one, representing the community dimension of social and economic cohesion. It includes Union citizenship, community policies, Economic and Monetary Union (EMU), and history was made with introduction of the Euro in a three-phase scheme from 1990 to 2002. The lateral pillars are based on cooperation among the governments. The second pillar represents the Common foreign and security policy (CFSP), and undertaking common actions in foreign policy. The European Council, where decisions must be adopted unanimously, agrees with the principles and general orientations of the CFSP. The TEU raised the Western European Union (WEU) to the rank of an integral part of the development of the Union and commissioned it the mission of elaborating and implementing decisions and actions with defense implications. The third pillar is based on Police and Judicial Cooperation (PJC) in criminal matters like terrorism, illegal immigration, asylum policy, drugs traffic, international crime, etc. The foundation of Europol (European Police Office), embryo of a future European police, was one of the most outstanding changes in this sphere.

The TEU introduced important changes in the institutions. The Ministers Council became the Council of the EU, and the Commission became the Commission of the European Communities. The European Parliament, the Court of Justice, the Court of Auditors, and the Economic and Social Committee increased their competences. A Committee of the Regions was established, and the founding of the European Central Bank was established at the beginning of the third phase of the EMU.

Following the TEU were successive enlargements of the Union and accompanying issues. In 1995, the fourth enlargement of the EU took place with the accession of Austria, Finland, and Sweden. The Europe of The Fifteen was born. A long and intricate negotiation ensued that focused on developing the Europe of citizens, fomenting the EU role in international politics, reforming the institutions and tackling a new enlargement to the 12 applicant countries (the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Poland, Estonia, Bulgaria, Latvia, Lithuania, Romania, and Slovakia) of Central and Eastern Europe (CCEE), and the Mediterranean countries of Cyprus and Malta. The Treaty of Amsterdam was finally signed in 1997 and ratified in 1999, its main objective is to modify certain regulations of the TEU, the constituent treaties of the European Communities (Paris and Rome) and of some acts related to them. It amends and adds to, but does not supplant previous treaties, and one of its main measures is to foster the preservation, protection, and improvement of environmental quality, solidly giving environment and sustainable development a place next to the more economic objectives.

The Lisbon Strategy was adopted in 2000 by the European Council as a comprehensive plan for modernizing the EU's economy to compete on the world market. It included opening up all sectors of the economy for competition, encouraging innovation, business investment, and modernizing the EU education system to meet the needs of an information society. At the same time unemployment and rising costs of pensions put pressure on member states' economies, making reform all the more necessary. EU leaders launched the first EU Sustainable Development Strategy (EU SDS) to address unsustainable trends at the Gothenburg Summit held in 2001. In 2006 the European Council adopted a comprehensive renewed EU SDS adopting an approach to policy-making that ensures EU social and environmental policies complement and balance economic policies with mutual reinforcement. The renewed EU SDS recognizes the need to gradually shift current unsustainable consumption and production patterns into a more integrated approach in policy making.

Future enlargement of the EU by the CCEE, Cyprus, Malta, and Turkey meant a historical opportunity; accession would increase the weight and influence of the Union internationally. However, the extremely different political and social features, and economic difficulties of these countries created major issues for the Union. EU institutions required reformation to remain efficient. The composition of the Commission, weight of each country's vote, and the powers of Parliament were subjects debated among governments.

Following a bitter debate among large and small countries for the re-weighting of votes in the Council with national interests outweighing Europe's interests, the Union tradition held, and an agreement was reached in the Treaty of Nice in 2001. It includes a new distribution of power for current and future member states. A complicated system of majorities and minorities was set up providing for three ways to block any decision of the council. The Treaty of Nice allowed the next historical step, the fifth and greatest enlargement of the Union in 2002.

The European Council had laid down the three criteria that candidate countries must meet before they can join the EU in Copenhagen in 1993. First, countries must have stable political institutions guaranteeing democracy, human rights and protection of minorities. Second, countries must have a functioning market economy able to cope with the competitive pressure and market forces in the EU. Third, countries must be able to take on obligations of EU membership, including adherence to political, economic, and monetary union. They must adopt the entire body of EU law. Negotiations with 10 candidate countries were completed in 2002, accession treaties were signed in 2003, and May 1, 2004 the candidates joined the EU with full rights as EU citizens. These 10 countries are Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Slovakia and Slovenia. The EU 25 was born.

There was concern that enlargement on this large scale not turn the EU into a mere free trade area, and that this continent-wide union of nations could work together effectively and efficiently. To this end, the Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe (TCE), commonly referred to as the European Constitution, was drafted for the EU 25. The final text of the European Constitution was signed in 2004 by representatives of the member states but subject to ratification by all member states prior to coming into force. France and the Netherlands rejected the European Constitution in referenda and the TCE has not yet been revised, ratified, or come into force. In January of 2007 Bulgaria and Romania joined the EU, creating the EU 27, and raising the EU population by nearly 30 million people overnight to 490 million. The European Council has decided to move ahead with possible membership of Croatia and Turkey. Questions remain about where to draw the ultimate boundaries of the European Union.